Abstract
Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a sudden reduction or loss of kidney function that persists for up to 3 months and can be caused by various stimuli, such as ischemia and reperfusion injury (IR) and/or accumulation of uremic toxins (UT) such as p-cresyl sulfate (PCS). IR injury is the main cause of AKI as it is associated with necrosis of renal tubular endothelial cells, in situ and systemic …