Crosslinkers for polysaccharides and proteins: Synthesis conditions, mechanisms, and crosslinking efficiency, a review

Author(s)

Alavarse, Alex Carvalho ; Frachini, Emilli Caroline Garcia ; da Silva, Rafael Leonardo Cruz Gomes ; Lima, Vitoria Hashimoto ; Shavandi, Amin ; Petri, Denise Freitas Siqueira

• Document type: Journal article
• Source: International Journal of Biological Macromolecules; v. 202, p. 39-pg., 2022-01-25.

Abstract

Polysaccharides and proteins are important macromolecules for developing hydrogels devoted to biomedical applications. Chemical hydrogels offer chemical, mechanical, and dimensional stability than physical hydrogels due to the chemical bonds among the chains mediated by crosslinkers. There are many crosslinkers to synthesize polysaccharides and proteins based on hydrogels. In this review, we revisited the crosslinking reaction mechanisms between synthetic or natural crosslinkers and polysaccharides or proteins. The selected synthetic cross linkers were glutaraldehyde, carbodiimide, boric acid, sodium trimetaphosphate, N,N'-methylene bisacrylamide, and polycarboxylic acid, whereas the selected natural crosslinkers included transglutaminase, tyrosinase, horseradish peroxidase, laccase, sortase A, genipin, vanillin, tannic acid, and phytic acid. No less important are the reactions involving click chemistry and the macromolecular crosslinkers for polysaccharides and proteins. Literature examples of polysaccharides or proteins crosslinked by the different strategies were presented along with the corresponding highlights. The general mechanism involved in chemical crosslinking mediated by gamma and UV radiation was discussed, with particular attention to materials commonly used in digital light processing. The evaluation of crosslinking efficiency by gravimetric measurements, rheology, and spectroscopic techniques was presented. Finally, we presented the challenges and opportunities to create safe chemical hydrogels for biomedical applications. (AU)

• FAPESP's process: 20/03248-7 - Study on the release of caffeine from magnetic xanthan scaffolds under magnetic stimulus
• Grantee: Vitoria Hashimoto Lima
• Support Opportunities: Scholarships in Brazil - Scientific Initiation
• FAPESP's process: 20/01907-3 - Determination of mechanical properties of polysaccharide-based magnetic scaffolds
• Grantee: Alex Carvalho Alavarse
• Support Opportunities: Scholarships in Brazil - Post-Doctoral
• FAPESP's process: 19/22671-0 - Peptides-polysaccharides conjugates as antimicrobial materials for 3D printing
• Grantee: Denise Freitas Siqueira Petri
• Support Opportunities: Regular Research Grants
• FAPESP's process: 20/05632-9 - Nanotopography and nanomechanical properties of nanostructured chitosan scaffolds and of cells adhered on them
• Grantee: Rafael Leonardo Cruz Gomes da Silva
• Support Opportunities: Scholarships in Brazil - Doctorate
• FAPESP's process: 18/13492-2 - Synthetic and natural scaffolds applied to regenerative medicine
• Grantee: Luiz Henrique Catalani
• Support Opportunities: Research Projects - Thematic Grants